Special Operations Forces (SOF) serve three strategic purposes that are increasingly important in the current international environment: (1) they expand the range of options available to decisionmakers confronting crises and conflicts below the threshold of war, such as terrorism, insurgency, and sabotage; (2) they act as force multipliers in support of conventional forces engaged in major conflicts, thus increasing the effectiveness and efficiency of the overall U.S. military effort; and (3) they provide unique capabilities for conducting activities in support of noncombatant missions such as humanitarian civic action and security assistance, as well as in support of peace operations.
SOF'S HERITAGE: ROLES AND MISSIONS
SOF have a dual heritage. They are the nation's preeminent surgical penetration and strike force, able to respond to specialized contingencies across the conflict spectrum with stealth, speed, and precision. They are also warrior-diplomats capable of influencing, advising, training, and conducting operations with foreign forces, officials, and populations. One of these two SOF roles is at the heart of each of the special operations activities.
SOF'S ROLE IN SUPPORT OF DEFENSE STRATEGY
SOF will continue to be a strategic asset and undertake their traditional, additional, and collateral missions in the new international environment. Because of their flexible nature, SOF need fewer modifications such as specialized training than most forces which have trained primarily for conventional missions. However, there has been a shift in mission emphasis as SOF are oriented to the new security environment characterized by the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), regional aggressors, and threats to democracy. Increasing attention also will be given to training in nonlethal techniques and support of peace operations, humanitarian assistance, and disaster relief operations.
SOF AND THE DANGERS POSED BY WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION
The proliferation of WMD -- nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons and their delivery systems -- is one of the most serious security threats that the United States, its allies, and friends confront in the post-Cold War era. When U.S. forces are faced with a discrete theater WMD threat, SOF can assist in deterring, destroying, or defending against it. PSYOP can support deterrence by communicating to foreign audiences a U.S. commitment and capability to prevent the proliferation and use of WMD. SOF direct action capabilities contribute to deterrence and destruction options by providing a precision strike capability against completed weapons, storage facilities, and command control nodes. SOF special reconnaissance capabilities can contribute to the defense against WMD threats by providing real-time intelligence unavailable from overhead systems.
SOF AND REGIONAL DANGERS -- MAJOR REGIONAL CONFLICTS
SOF are force multipliers for U.S. conventional forces combatting regional aggression, contributing directly to conventional combat operations, complicating enemy operations through assistance to indigenous forces allied with the United States, and sealing the victory through post-hostility and restoration activities. In Operation Desert Storm, for example, SOF conducted special reconnaissance, direct action, and other missions behind Iraqi lines which contributed to deception operations that misled the enemy about the coalition's operational plan and facilitated coalition warfare. According to information obtained from prisoners of war, psychological operations leaflets and broadcasts were responsible for a large number of enemy defections and surrenders. Active and Reserve component CA units processed and managed displaced person and refugee operations and distributed humanitarian assistance, supplies, and services. Reserve CA also assisted ministries of the government of Kuwait in planning for immediate post-conflict restoration.
SOF are particularly well suited to conventional coalition warfare. One SOF contribution to Operation Desert Storm was to extend the command and control system from the Coalition headquarters to all national elements in the field. By providing command, control, and intelligence information to their host commanders, 134 SOF teams ensured coherent, unified action before, during, and after hostilities.
SOF AND REGIONAL DANGERS -- LOW-INTENSITY CONFLICT
SOF have an important role to play in low-intensity conflict both because of the unique capabilities resident in SOF and because of the special character of low-intensity conflicts. U.S. efforts to counter low-intensity threats are not focused on traditional military objectives. They are not aimed at destroying enemy forces or capturing terrain, but rather at changing an adversary's policy without resorting to the expense and risk of war. However, if the United States treats low-intensity conflicts as merely scaled-down versions of conventional war, it will not succeed in these missions, or succeed only at a great cost in lives and resources.
Low-intensity conflict, as a component of operations other than war, will continue to concern the United States. Terrorism, subversion, insurgency, and coups d'etat will continue to be some of the principal means by which national and subnational actors carve out their places in the world. Such activities may be used to weaken regional security by undermining support for U.S. presence, reducing U.S. access and influence, complicating the coordination of collective defense efforts, or directly attacking Americans, allies, or regimes friendly to the United States. To respond to these threats, the United States cannot rely alone on a well-honed conventional military capability that can be unleashed only when U.S. vital interests are directly threatened.
SOF AND THE CHALLENGES OF DEMOCRATIZATION
Many of the skills in the SOF inventory are directly applicable to supporting friendly, democratic regimes. Due to their linguistic ability and cultural sensitivity, they can quickly establish an effective working rapport with foreign military and paramilitary forces and, when required, government officials. Specifically, SOF (especially CA, PSYOP, and Special Forces (SF)) can assess appropriate host nation projects, conduct disaster assistance or humanitarian assistance planning seminars, and assist interagency coordination, foreign liaison, and public information programs. Operation Uphold Democracy is a classic examples of how unique SOF language and cultural skills can be successfully applied in the initial stages of a peacetime military campaign plan.
Some military units, especially combat support and combat service support units, such as engineer or medical units, and even some civilian agencies would benefit from having civil affairs, psychological operations, or SF personnel attached to them for overseas peacetime missions. Prior to deployment, these SOF can train members in the cultural aspects of their projects and how to deal with local military officials and civilians with whom they may come in contact. During deployment, SOF can assist them in coordinating with local representatives and the population.
DEFINING APPROPRIATE SOF MISSIONS AND ENSURING MAXIMUM EFFECTIVENESS
To realize their full potential as strategic assets, SOF require national level oversight and must be fully integrated into both conventional operations and interagency planning. Since historically SOF have been under or overvalued, national level oversight of special operations is required to ensure that they are employed to maximum effectiveness. Understanding the qualities that make Special Operations Forces unique is critical to identifying precisely how changes in the security environment and defense policy affect SOF, and to evaluating the importance and appropriateness of newly emerging missions and activities. Special operations often differ from conventional operations in degree of physical and political risk, mode of employment, independence from friendly support, and dependence on detailed intelligence and indigenous assets.
In major regional conflicts, special operations forces, like airpower, armored and infantry divisions, or naval forces, are most effective when matched with complementary capabilities. Skillful integration of SOF with conventional forces will allow SOF to fulfill their force multiplier function in conventional operations. DoD is taking steps to improve SOF interoperability with conventional forces and ensure their inclusion in strategic planning, joint training, interagency exercises, and DoD educational curricula.
In low-intensity conflicts, SOF have particular advantages, but the complex nature of such a situation demands careful planning and interagency coordination. Since higher profile direct action missions can entail great risk, if unsuccessful they can exacerbate the situation, negate political advantages, or diminish credibility. SOF must become better adapted to working with U.S. government agencies so as to provide the extra options for decisionmakers needing more imaginative solutions in the political-military environment short of war. Virtually all future SOF operations, with the exception of some conducted in wartime support of conventional operations, will have to be closely coordinated at the interagency level.
CURRENT AND RECENT OPERATIONS
The sensitivity of special operations precludes a specific discussion of most SOF activities in this report. However, examples of some recent operations include the following:
The most telling evidence of the utility of SOF in the new security environment is their extremely high operations tempo in 1994: SOF conducted over 2,216 deployments (involving more than 14,000 personnel) to 139 countries to accomplish tasks in their primary mission areas. These numbers reflect a 21 percent increase over 1993 in the number of missions.
The chart below depicts the relationships among the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Special Operations/Low intensity Conflict) (OASD(SO/LIC)), U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM), and its component organization of SOF and their major locations.
FORCE STRUCTURE
SOF are prepared to operate worldwide and across the spectrum of conflict. Approximately 46,000 active and Reserve personnel from the Army, Navy, and Air Force are assigned to USSOCOM. SOF are organized into into three service components and a joint command. In actual operations, service component units are normally employed in joint task forces tailored for specific missions. SOF are normally employed at the sub-unified theater Special Operations Command (SOC).
Army Special Operations Forces include Special Forces (Green Beret), Ranger, Special Operations Aviation (SOA), PSYOP, CA, Signal, Support, and Headquarters units under U.S. Army Special Operations Command (USASOC). Special Forces are organized into five active and two Army National Guard Groups. The Ranger regiment consists of three battalions, based at three locations across the United States. SOA consists of one active regiment in the United States and one detachment in Panama. PSYOP is organized into three groups, one active and two reserve. The CA force consists of one active duty battalion and the following U.S. Army Reserve (USAR) structure: seven general purpose brigades and 24 battalions. Ninety-seven percent of the CA force is found in the USAR.
Naval Special Warfare (NSW) forces support naval and joint special operations within the unified commands. NSW SOF is organized into two Naval Special Warfare Groups, each with three SEAL Teams of 10, 16-man Platoons and a SEAL Delivery (SDV) Team; two Special Boat Squadrons with a total of four Special Boat Units and eventually 13 Patrol Coastal class commissioned 170-foot ships; and four Naval Special Warfare Units, which are small command and control elements located outside the continental United States (CONUS) to support other NSW forces assigned to theater Special Operation Commands or components of naval task forces.
Air Force SOF are organized into one active Special Operations Wing, two active Special Operations Groups (one each in Pacific and European commands), one Air Force Reserve Special Operations Wing, one Air National Guard Special Operations Group, and one active Special Tactics Group. These units perform long-range infiltration, aerial refueling, resupply, exfiltration, or combat rescue missions deep within sensitive or enemy-held territory. They can also conduct PSYOP leaflet drops, broadcast radio or television signals, and deliver 15,000 pound BLU-82 bombs (as demonstrated during Operation Desert Storm), in addition to providing close air support, interdiction, and armed escort capabilities. These aircraft support both SOF and conventional forces.
SOF THEMES FOR THE FUTURE
In the future, the demand for forces that can selectively respond to diverse regional concerns will be greater than ever. With this in mind, the following themes will guide the SOF community during this decade:
SOF are particularly suited to many new activities emphasized in the National Security Strategy. Many of these missions require traditional SOF capabilities, while others such as peacekeeping, peace enforcement, and counterproliferation are relatively new and are the subject of developing SOF doctrine. However, the late 1980s and early 1990s have proven that SOF are invaluable as facilitators and peacetime operators, as well as premier strike troops. In order to be as effective as possible, SOF face two major challenges -- they must continue to integrate with conventional forces, other U.S. agencies, friendly foreign forces, and other international organizations (for example, the United Nations) -- while preserving the autonomy necessary to protect and encourage the unconventional approach that is the soul of special operations. This interoperability will facilitate meeting the major challenges of the 1990s -- to modify capabilities and perceptions to enable SOF to conduct operations successfully in support of peacetime objectives.
