III. National Defense ConstructionStructure and Organization of the Armed Forces
The armed forces of the PRCare composed of the PLA, both the active and reserve components, the Chinese People'sArmed Police Force and the militia. The CMC of the PRC directs and assumes unified commandof the nation's armed forces. The Ministry of National Defense under the State Councildirects and administers national defense work.The active components of the PLA are the country'sstanding army, which mainly undertake the task of defensive military operations, and helpto maintain social order, if necessary, in accordance with the law. Its basicorganizational structures can be categorized into the general headquarters/departments,the services and arms and the military area commands.
- The general headquarters/departments. The PLA'sgeneral headquarters/departments system is composed of the General Staff Headquarters, theGeneral Political Department, the General Logistics Department and the General ArmamentsDepartment, which are placed under the leadership of the CMC. The CMC, through these fourgeneral headquarters/departments, directs and commands all the military area commands andthe services and arms. The routine work of the Ministry of National Defense is handled,respectively, by these four general headquarters/departments. The General StaffHeadquarters is the leading organ of all military work of the nation's armed forces. Itorganizes and leads the military construction of the nation's armed forces, and organizesand commands their military operations. Under it there are departments in charge ofoperations, intelligence, training, adjutant and force structure, mobilization, etc. TheGeneral Political Department is the leading organ of all political work of the nation'sarmed forces. It administers the armed forces' Party work, and organizes their politicalwork. Under it there are departments in charge of Party affairs, personnel, publicity,security, etc. The General Logistics Department organizes and directs the armed forces'logistics construction and logistical support. Under it there are departments in charge offinancial affairs, quartermaster, health administration, military transportation,materials and POLs, capital construction and barracks, auditing, etc. The GeneralArmaments Department organizes and directs the weaponry and equipment construction work ofthe armed forces. Under it there are departments in charge of planning; armaments forNavy, military aviation and strategic equipment; Army equipment research, development andprocurement; general equipment support; electronics and information infrastructure,equipment and technology cooperation, etc.
- The services and arms. The PLA is composed ofthree services - the Army, Navy and Air Force - and an independent arm, the SecondArtillery Force. The Army has such arms as the infantry, artillery, armor, engineering,communications, anti-chemical warfare and Army aviation, as well as other specializedunits. The Navy has such arms as the surface, submarine, naval aviation, coastal defenseand marine corps, as well as other specialized units. The Air Force has such arms as theaviation, surface-to-air missile and antiaircraft artillery, radar, and airborne, as wellas other specialized units. The Second Artillery Force is composed of the strategicmissile, conventional missile, and other specialized units.
- The military area commands. The military areacommands ( theaters of war) of the PLA are military organizations set up according to thestate's administrative divisions, geographical locations, strategic and operationalorientations, and operational tasks. Under each military area command are a number of Armycombined corps, units of various arms, logistical support units, and provincial orgarrison commands. Their major functions include organizing and coordinating the jointoperations and exercises of the ground, naval and air forces in each military area;exercising direct leadership over Party affairs, military training, administration,political work, logistical and armaments support of the Army units under its jurisdiction;and directing the militia, military service, mobilization, civil air defense andbattlefield construction work in the military area. At present, the PLA has seven militaryarea commands, namely, Shenyang, Beijing, Lanzhou, Jinan, Nanjing, Guangzhou and Chengdu.
The PLA has the Academy of Military Science (AMS),the National Defense University (NDU), and the National University of Defense Technology(NUDT). The AMS is the PLA's highest-level research institute and center of militaryscience. The NDU and the NUDT are the two institutions of higher learning directly underthe CMC. The former is mainly responsible for the education and training of seniorcommanding and staff officers and researchers, while the latter is mainly responsible forthe education and training of senior scientists and engineers, and specialized commandingofficers.
The PLA's reserve force is a force with its presetorganizational structure, with the reserve personnel as the base and active personnel asthe backbone. The reserve force, which is incorporated into the PLA's order of battle,receives military training in peacetime according to relevant regulations, and helps tomaintain social order, if necessary, in accordance with the law. In wartime, it may becalled into active service in pursuance of a state mobilization order.
The Chinese People's Armed Police Force undertakesthe task of maintenance of security entrusted by the state. It is under the dualleadership of the State Council and the CMC, and consists of internal security forces, andgold mine, forest, water and power, and transportation security forces.
The militia is a component of the state's armedforces. The militiamen and women, under the command of military organs, perform combatreadiness support and defensive operations, and help to maintain social order. The GeneralStaff Headquarters is in charge of nationwide militia work. Each military area command isresponsible for the militia work under its jurisdiction. Each provincial command exercisesleadership and command over the militia in its region.
Mobilization and Education
The Standing Committee of the National People'sCongress (NPC) decides on general or partial mobilization, and the State Council and theCMC jointly direct mobilization preparation and implementation. In November 1994, theState Commission for National Defense Mobilization was established. The Commission is aconsultant and coordinating body in charge of nationwide defense mobilization under theleadership of the State Council and the CMC. Its major tasks are to carry out the militarystrategy of active defense, organize and implement the state's defense mobilization, andcoordinate the relations between economic and military affairs, the armed forces and thegovernment, and manpower and materials support in defense mobilization, so as to enhancenational defense strength and the ability to shift from a peacetime to a wartime footing.
In peacetime the state conducts mobilizationpreparation and integrates mobilization of the armed forces, the national economy, civilair defense, national defense transportation and other fields into the state's overalldevelopment plan and program. Mobilization of the armed forces entails the measures andactions taken by the state to turn the armed forces from a peacetime to a wartime footing.Mobilization of the national economy entails the measures and actions taken by the state,in a well-organized and planned way, to shift the economic sectors and relatedinstitutions from a peacetime to a wartime footing. The major tasks of civil air defensemobilization include the directing, building and management of civil air defense projects;command, communications and warning systems, and evacuation areas; the protection of keyeconomic targets; the conduct of civil air defense publicity and education; and themanagement of civil air defense funds and assets. The Air Defense Law of the PRC went intoforce on January 1, 1997. Defense transportation mobilization provides organizational,material and technological support to transportation and communications and constructionduring peacetime, and organizes and implements transportation and communications supportduring wartime.
All the state organs and armed forces, all politicalparties and mass organizations, and all enterprises, institutions and citizens mustfulfill the mobilization obligations during peacetime according to regulations stipulatedby laws, and fulfill the prescribed mobilization tasks after the state has proclaimed amobilization order. At present, in line with the principle of combining a peacetime with awartime footing and the military with the civilian sectors, and having reserve soldiersamong the people, China continues to perfect its defense mobilization system, strengthenits mobilization potential and capacity, and promote the modernization of defensemobilization work.
China's defense education is guided by the principlewhich combines regular education with intensive education, universal education withadvanced education, and textbook education with conduct education. Education in defensetheories, spirit, and knowledge and skills is provided for all citizens. This aims toimprove the citizens' understanding and knowledge of national defense, to develop theirspirit of patriotism and to help them perform defense duties conscientiously.
According to the National Defense Law of the PRC,all state organs and armed forces, all political parties and mass organizations, and allenterprises and institutions are responsible for organizing and carrying out defenseeducation in their respective regions, departments or units. The state and society atlarge launch defense education and publicity activities in various forms using mass mediaand other means. The armed forces make use of their military museums, military historyexhibitions, halls of fame and memorial halls of heroes as bases for patriotism anddefense education among the people. Schools and colleges, with the assistance of militaryorgans, offer appropriate defense courses according to their levels and types, or adddefense education to related courses. The state has made national defense education partof the education of the whole people, gradually bringing it into a socialized,diversified, regularized and institutionalized pattern.
Defense Expenditure
The Chinese government has consistently stuck to theprinciple of strict control, management and supervision of defense spending. It hasestablished a complete administrative and regulatory system. China's defense budget andfinal accounts are examined and approved by the NPC. The state and armed forces' auditingorgans exercise auditing and supervision of the total defense budget, itemized budgets andthe budgets for various departments, as well as the entire process of execution of thesebudgets.
China's defense expenditure falls into the followingcategories: personnel expenses, costs for maintenance of activities, and costs forequipment. Personnel expenses mainly cover the pay, food and clothing of officers,non-ranking cadres, enlisted men and civilian employees. Costs for maintenance ofactivities mainly cover training, construction and maintenance of facilities and runningexpenses. Costs for equipment mainly cover research, experimentation, procurement,maintenance, transportation and storage. China's defense expenditure covers not only theactive forces, but also the militia and reserve forces. Support for some retired officers,the education of the children of military personnel, and other social spending are alsoprovided in the defense expenditure.
China's annual defense expenditures in 1998 and 1999were RMB 93.47 billion yuan and 107.67 billion yuan, respectively, and that for 2000 isRMB 121.29 billion yuan (see Table below). The annual increase in defense expenses went orwill go for the most part to cover the increased spending for carrying out their routineduties and operations after the armed forces have ceased commercial activities; increasedspending for the placement of retired officers and their pensions; increased spending forpay and subsidy raises for military personnel to keep their living standards in step withthe nation's social and economic development and with the increase of the per capitaincomes of urban and rural residents; and increased spending for maintaining a garrison inMacao.
 | Personnel Expenses | Maintenance of Activities | Costs for Equipment | Total |
| 1998 | 322.7 | 298.0 | 314.0 | 934.7 |
| 1999 | 348.6 | 380.3 | 347.8 | 1076.7 |
| 2000 | 405.5 | 418.1 | 389.3 | 1212.9 |
Overall, China's defense expenditure has remained ata fairly low level. In 1998 and 1999, the proportion of defense spending in the totalstate financial expenditure was 8.66% and 8.20%, respectively, and that in 2000 is 8.29%,all lower than those in 1997 or earlier (see Chart 1). In terms of US dollars, China'sannual defense expenditure in 2000 is US$ 14.60 billion, which is only 5% of the USA'sdefense spending, 30% of Japan's, 40% of UK's, 48% of France's, and 64% of Germany's (seeChart 2). In addition, the percentage of China's defense spending in its gross domesticproduct (GDP) is also lower than those of the USA, the Republic of Korea (ROK), India, UK,France and some other countries (See Chart 3).
 |
Chart 1 The Percentage of China's Defense Expenditure in the Total State Fi-nancial Expenditure 1995-2000
 |
Chart 2 Comparison of Defense Expenditures of Some Countries in 2000
(Unit: billion US dollars)
Note: The exchange rate used here is based on that announced by China's State Admini-stration of Exchange Control this year, which is US$ 1.0ˇÖRMB 8.28 yuan.
 |
Note: The above data are taken from defense, financial or other government reports pub-lished by the said countries.
China's fundamental aim in developing science,technology and industry for national defense is to satisfy the basic demands of nationaldefense, guarantee the production and supply of military equipment, and raise the level ofnational defense modernization.
Since the establishment of the PRC in 1949, thecountry, with a relatively small input and within a relatively short period of time, hasbuilt a comparatively complete defense science, technology and industry systemindependently through self-reliance, basically meeting the requirements for transformingthe PLA from a simple ground force into an integrated armed service comprising the Army,Navy, Air Force and Second Artillery Force. In the field of sophisticated technology, thesuccessful development of atomic bombs, missiles and man-made satellites has made Chinaone of the few countries in the world with its own nuclear weapons and space technology.In the field of conventional equipment, China has made a fundamental shift from copying toindependent production, giving a powerful boost to the modernization of the PLA'sweaponry.
To meet the demands of the development of thesocialist market economy, and set up a new defense science, technology and industry systemwith top-notch efficiency, China has carried out fundamental structural reforms. In March1998, a new Commission of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense was setup, to act as the leading department of the State Council in this regard, responsible forcarrying out disciplinary management like policies, laws and regulations, plans,standards, and supervision in defense science, technology and industry. In July 1999, thecorporations of five military industries, involved in nuclear, astronautics, aeronautics,shipbuilding and weapons sectors respectively, were reorganized into ten corporations,namely, China National Nuclear Corporation, China Nuclear Engineering and ConstructionCorporation, China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation, China Aerospace Machineryand Electronics Corporation, China Aviation Industry Corporation I, China AviationIndustry Corporation II, China State Shipbuilding Corporation, China Shipbuilding IndustryCorporation, China North Industries Group Corporation and China South Industries GroupCorporation. Through this reform, the market competition mechanism has been introducedinto China's national defense science, technology and industry, the structure and layoutof which have been gradually improved. In addition, the contingents of military industryhave been streamlined, the capability of shifting from a peacetime to a wartime footinghas been enhanced and strenuous efforts have been made to establish a new militaryindustry system of an open type.
In developing its defense science, technology andindustry, China adheres to the principle of reliance on science and education, makes fulluse of the country's scientific and technological capacity to develop military researchand production, strengthens cooperation and exchanges in this field with other countriesworldwide, promotes development of new and high technology weapons and equipment,accelerates the pace of application of scientific research findings, and strives to supplyarms of high performance, reliable quality and complete sets. Meanwhile, China's defensescience, technology and industry, by strongly promoting the peaceful use of militaryindustry technology and bringing the advantages of military industry into full play, givespriority to the development of civilian-use nuclear energy, aerospace, aviation, andshipbuilding industries, and thereby forms a benign circle of mutual military-civilianprogress. Now, China's defense science, technology and industry has become an importantforce in the country's national economic development.
Frontier Defense
China's land borders total more than 22,000 km inlength; its mainland coastline stretches for some 18,000 km; and it neighbors more than 20countries, either contiguous or separated by stretches of sea. The Chinese governmentpursues a policy of good neighborliness and friendship. It defends and administers itsland borders and territorial seas, safeguards the country's territorial sovereignty andmaritime rights and interests, and secures both its land and sea borders, strictly inaccordance with treaties and agreements it has signed with its neighboring countries, andthe United Nations maritime conventions. China advocates settling pending and unresolvedborder and maritime demarcation issues through negotiations, attaches importance to thesetting up of a mutual confidence-building mechanism in border regions, and opposes theuse of force or provocative acts. China has solved or basically solved boundary issuesleft over by history with most of its adjacent countries. In the 1960s, China and theDemocratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), Mongolia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal andMyanmar settled their border issues through negotiations. In the 1990s, China signed newborder treaties or agreements with Laos, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan andViet Nam, re- demarcating or basically demarcating the respective boundaries. The bordersbetween China and Laos and Russia were re-surveyed; the field survey of the border betweenChina and Kazakhstan has been completed; the survey of the border between China andKyrgyzstan has started, and the survey of the border between China and Viet Nam is aboutto commence. China has signed treaties, agreements and understandings respectively withthe DPRK, Mongolia, Russia, Myanmar, Viet Nam and Laos on border control measures, settingup confidence-building measures, preventing dangerous military activities and promotingborder cooperation, jointly maintaining frontier order within a bilateral or multilaterallegal framework and preserving peace and stability on the borders. In the course of itsvigorous development of various kinds of cooperative relations with its neighboringcountries, China has opened more than 200 ports along its land and sea frontiers.
China exercises a joint military-civilian land andsea border management system, headed by the military and with a sharing ofresponsibilities between the military and the local authorities. The State Council and theCMC exercise unified leadership over land and sea border defense. The Chinese governmentplaces the utmost importance on the formulation of laws concerning frontier defense. Ithas enacted a series of laws and regulations, and corresponding local laws and regulationshave been put in place by concerned provinces, autonomous regions and municipalitiesdirectly under the Central Government. The concerned departments of the state havepromulgated special regulations with regard to exit and entry control and the managementof land and sea ports. Border control departments conduct publicity and educationactivities aimed at enlightening the people of the frontier areas as to the nature of theboundaries, the concept of frontier defense, and border policies and laws. They also wagespecial battles to crack down on smuggling and narcotics, and hit hard at transnational,trans-border criminal activities in accordance with the law.
The Macao Garrison
Following the Chinese government's resumption ofsovereignty over Hong Kong in 1997, on December 20, 1999, it resumed sovereignty overMacao, an important symbol of which is the stationing of a PLA garrison in Macao tofulfill defense duties. It is also an important guarantee for safeguarding nationalsovereignty and security, as well as the long-term peace and stability of Macao.
The stationing of the PLA garrison in Macao wascarried out strictly in accordance with the provisions of the law. The Basic Law of theMacao Special Administrative Region (MSAR) of the PRC, passed by the First Session of theEighth NPC in March 1993, clearly states that the Central People's Government of China isresponsible for the defense of the MSAR. In June 1999, the Tenth Meeting of the StandingCommittee of the Ninth NPC deliberated and passed the Garrison Law of the MSAR of the PRC,which officially went into effect on December 20, 1999. The provisions of the Garrison Lawstate that the Macao Garrison will not interfere in the local affairs of the MSAR, but ifthe government of the MSAR, in a time of need, requests the Central People's Governmentfor the assistance of the Macao Garrison in the maintenance of social order or in case ofdisaster, the Garrison is obligated to render the necessary assistance in compliance withthe instructions of the CMC. The Garrison's tasks are to fulfill defense duties, managemilitary installations, handle matters concerning foreign military affairs, and ensureMacao's security and stability. The expenses of the Macao Garrison are undertaken by theCentral People's Government. The Macao Garrison practices a personnel rotation system. TheGarrison Law also contains regulations governing the obligations and discipline of themembers of the Garrison, as well as judicial jurisdiction.
The PLA Macao Garrison, subordinate to theleadership of the CMC, is mainly composed of ground forces, with some naval and air forcepersonnel on its staff. In carrying out its defense duties, the Macao Garrison mustobserve the national laws as well as those of the MSAR, and uphold the rules andregulations of the PLA. Following its stationing in Macao, the Macao Garrison has strictlyadhered to the law in the aspects of its garrisoning, administration, conduct andmanagement, undertaken arduous training, observed strict discipline, and strengthened inan all- round way the building of the force along the line of regularization. By adheringto the regulations of the Garrison Law, the Garrison has set up normal working relationswith the government of the Special Region and has timely established channels for contactswith Macao society, thereby promoting the Macao people's understanding of and trust in theGarrison.
The PLA Macao Garrison will persevere in theguideline of "one country, two systems," fulfill its defense responsibilitiesefficiently and perform every item of its duties under the Garrison Law, so as tocontribute to the country's security and Macao's stability and development.
BACK